Government Regulation and the Early Days of Radio

Government regulation was instrumental in speeding up the process of developing radio and determining ownership and operation. 

From the beginning, American government demanded control over the use of radio. It set up the companies that would develop radio, and then shaped the industry through regulation. After returning radio from the Navy after World War I, the Commerce Department began to regulate broadcasting and grant licenses. This culminated in the Radio Act of 1927, which was more specific than the Radio Act of 1912 and created the Federal Radio Commission. This level of government involvement set a precedent that would continue throughout radio's history and would reappear in new forms of media.

The government’s determination became clear in its early dealings with radio. After World War I, the U.S. Government refused to allow Marconi to buy U.S. Patents and instead demanded that he turn over his American assets to General Electric. Working with AT&T, they created Radio Corporation of America (RCA) and instituted a patent pool for the three companies. The government was instrumental in making sure the United States had the technology and business foundations necessary to accelerate the growth of radio.

Social Learning Theory and The Delicate Balance of Buzz

It would seem like an obvious conclusion: in order to promote your movie, you want to have lots of people talking about it. The more early buzz, the better performance for your film. However, this simple formula does not always work. The problem of over-exposure can be explained with a more complicated reading of the Social Learning Theory.

The Social Learning Theory basically suggests that our relationship with the media is, in great part, a result of imitation. Unlike the uses and gratifications theory, which argues that we choose media in order to meet a certain need, Social Learning focuses on personal experience and observed behavior. These form an 'outcome expectation' that then informs our decision-making. For example, if we hear people talking about how much they enjoyed the new Pixar movie, we may be inclined to go see it, now having the expectation that it will be a fun movie to watch.

This theory is particularly interesting when considered with the strategy of movie buzz. This article suggests that the effects of the Social Learning theory are not so simple: hearing good things about a movie does not promote it indefinitely. The buzz may peak early, leaving people bored with the idea by the time the movie is actually released. There also may be a backlash in buzz as a result of too much excitement. This is what almost happened with 'Inception,' and the article was written before the movie came out when it seemed like the incredible expectations attached to the movie would lead to disappointment. Ultimately, 'Inception' avoided that fate; either the hype did not cross over to a harmful area, or the movie was strong enough to hold up against its glowing reviews. However, the implications of this idea still persist. As a personal example, I remember finally convincing a few relatives to watch 'The Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl' a couple years after it had been released. Having heard wonderful things about this movie, my relatives were extremely disappointed when they found the movie fun and entertaining enough, but not anything incredible. Instead of dismissing the movie as good but forgettable, though, they actively hated it. The gap between their expectations and their experience caused them to become more angry than they ever would have been if the movie hadn't been hyped.

This interpretation of the Social Learning Theory shows that while other's opinions are very important in the decisions we make regarding media, they also color our expectations and make our personal outcome hard to predict. The relationship between early buzz and eventual reception are quite complex; it seems that in promotion, media distributors will have to strike just the right balance of excitement in moderation.

Picture: http://www.filmofilia.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Inception-Poster.jpg
Article: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/movies/2010/07/inception-chris-nolan-review-good.html

The Bechdel Test, Gender Roles and Hegemony

Bechdel's Test

(I apologize for the lighting, it's a work in progress.)

I’m female. It’s an indicative statement that affirms the obvious, yet with those two words a whole set of subtexts is instantly set off. The expectations and implications associated with being female are drawn to attention quite often these days, but there is still a steady undercurrent that defines women as somehow fundamentally different than the generic view of ‘human.’ This subtle, constant work of hegemony is a driving force in the creation and maintenance of gender roles, and the Bechdel Test is only one example.

Hegemony, by definition, is not preached openly or forced onto the populace by coercion. It is accepted as “common sense,” swept under the realm of conscious observation. Through the reinforcement of images and messages that support a dominant group or ideology, hegemony creates a definition of normalcy that goes undetected. This in turn creates a cycle: because something is assumed to be normal, it is incorporated into a hegemony, at which point more people are persuaded of this something’s normalcy.

Most issues with gender roles have been pulled out from this blind spot at least in some form: the exploitation of women in advertising and entertainment, the treatment of women in the workplace, politics, and other forms of leadership. But one that stayed beyond my notice for some time is the general lack of female characters in movies. Sure, most movies now emphasize at least one strong female cast member, but most of the time this character is so busy being female that they don’t have time for basic character development. Too often, women only exist in a narrative because of a familial or romantic connection to a male character; even more regularly, they are restricted to themes associated with the feminine or they are used only as prizes or objects to be rescued and saved. A more recent phenomenon is a problem that arises when the character is taken too far in the other direction: the creators produce an ‘Action Girl’ who has no character traits other than being the designated stand-in for an often inaccurate idea of what strength looks like in a woman.

While it may appear that female characters are stronger and more frequent in storytelling media, the truth is they are still far from being recognized as a generic human being with generic human problems. In the video above, I address this through a discussion of the Bechdel Test. Click here for more information, or watch this video showing even more examples.

Postscript

(Correction: At least than half of the people you meet on a college campus will be female.)